Introduction
In
an era marked by growing demands for efficiency, sustainability, flexibility
and strong international connectivity, the logistics sector has become a focal
point for strategic consideration in international trade, which serves as a cornerstone in the flow of goods across borders.
As a result, the evolution of this industry not only reflects technological
advancement but also mirrors the intricate relationship between economic forces
on a global scale.
This study aims to examine
the factors that influence the growth of the logistics sector by offering a
detailed and context-specific analysis of how logistics practices impact global
trade. It does this by using the efficiency assessment to assess how advancements
in logistics, such as streamlined supply chains or cutting-edge transportation
systems, improve the effectiveness of global trade routes.
Besides,
the issue of how logistics infrastructure affects a country’s ability to access
global markets, like port capacity, transport networks and customs procedures,
is being examined. Additionally, the impact of adopting new technologies in the
logistics sector on the speed, accuracy and reliability of the global trade
process will be explored.
It
is also crucial to assess how sustainable logistic practices, such as green
transportation and eco-friendly packaging, influence a country’s environmental
footprint in the context of global trade.
This
study seeks to offer insights into the potential avenues for further
enhancement and optimization, as well as best practices, challenges and
potential areas for improvement in logistics services to foster an efficient
global trade environment. This is done by conducting a comprehensive analysis
of recent developments and emerging technology.
The
study covers the position of the logistics sector in the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) region, measuring the impact of its development on its position in
global trade, highlighting the practices that had been established in the Gulf region,
and examining the economic impact of its GDP and its trade volume worldwide.
Foreign
trade promotion mechanism
One
of the few positive outcomes of the prolonged coronavirus pandemic has been growing
digitalization of business investments in communications, contact-free
transactions, artificial intelligence and robotics. We can therefore observe
that companies have increased their investments in their online businesses significantly,
despite the statements made regarding the disruption caused by COVID-19 and its
impact on the global economy.
Therefore,
in line with the increasing connectivity among world economies and consumers’
rising demand for affordable, timely products, logistics services are
progressively intensifying their role as the powerhouse of global trade.[1] It
is one of the determinants of a country’s competitiveness on export markets and
its ability to secure imports for production and consumption in the global
economy.[2]
In
this regard, the growing emergence of new disruptions in the logistics sector
is likely to have more amplifying impact on trade volume. These new disruptions
encompass technological advancement and innovative approaches that streamline
operations and improve efficiency, which reduces the time consumption. It
redefines how goods are transported across borders, handled at ports, tracked
by customers, stored and delivered to end users, offering a high probability of
achieving global trade reform, expanding market opportunities, fostering
partnerships and transforming overall logistics operations.[3]
Many
logistics companies and industry players have taken proactive approaches to respond to these challenges by utilizing
improved collaboration within their logistics ecosystem. This has been
demonstrated by several evidences, including the following:
· Accurate demand forecasting in order to
expect customers’ needs and plan production, accordingly, using highly advanced
analytics data.
· Implementing inventory management to avoid
overstock or stockout situations.
· “Warehouse Management System” (WMS) that
helps the companies to manage their daily inventories through screening the
stock and control the products from the point they reach the companies until
their transfer to the distribution centers. This system is a crucial component
in supply chain management, as it provides companies with an accurate vision of
the whole stock in the warehouse.
· Technology integration such as “Supply
Chain Management” (SCM) software which is used to track and monitor the supply
chain to achieve a high level of transparency, visibility and efficiency across
the whole process.
· Transportation optimization through
choosing an effective mode of transportation that achieves cost savings and
improves delivery performance.
· Sustainability and compliance with ethical
environmental standards to better manage climate-related risks and enhance
resilience and sustainability features across the various stages of operations.
Technological
advancements in logistics services
In
the context of the logistic services revolution, many technological systems have
been developed and applied by many leading countries to enhance the efficiency,
accuracy and visibility of their logistic operations. Hence, the implementation
of the AR system (Augmented Reality) is a perfect tool to improve and
facilitate the supply chain process, which is now playing an important role in
revolutionizing inventory management, by minimizing time consumption, and
providing real-time data, visualization and visibility. AR technology displays
all the relevant information about images and labels in a real-world
environment; it also shows their locations and the efficient route in the warehouse,
so this will help to increase accuracy and speed. Moreover, “Transportation
Management System” (TMS) is a logistic platform that uses technology to help
businesses plan, execute and optimize the physical movement of goods and
services incoming and outgoing and achieve better shipment visibility and
management for customers.
“Enterprise
Resource Planning” (ERP) is also a unified software single platform that is
applied by companies to manage their day-to-day business activities, such as
accounting procurement, human resources, project management, and risk
management. ERP systems help businesses better coordinate their resources by
giving them visibility into key performance indicators and enabling them to
manage inventory and warehouse operations.[4]
GCC
unique approach in tackling logistics
Delivering
on its historic and remarkable position as a leading regional trading hub, the
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have progressively ranked logistics
services high among their national agendas. Capitalizing on their strategic
geographical position as a link between the east and the west, most GCC
countries have secured significant investments in developing logistics
infrastructure, promoting trade facilitation measures and increasing the adoption
of logistics-related technology.[5]
Central
to the GCC countries unique approach to realizing the hidden potential of their
logistics services is the expansion of free and specialized economic zones
(SEZ). The prime location, combined with the proximity to the world marine’s
busiest routes, has further facilitated the expansion of SEZs across the
region, not only for scaling up the logistics services domain but also for
attracting foreign investors and localizing target industries. According to a
recent report by pwc, the current and planned SEZs in the GCC countries are
expected to surpass the 100,000 hectares by 2040, making them larger than the size
of the Kingdom of Bahrain.[6]
Having
said that, it is noteworthy that most SEZs across the region have geared
towards target investors and leading logistics companies in the world by
offering customized regulation, tailored incentives, 100% ownership of businesses,
secured partnerships with reliable public sector entities, reduced tax rates, a
simplified investor journey and preferential trade measures.
GCC
logistics as a vehicle of economic diversification
The
GCC is the most advanced model of sub-regional integration in the MENA region,
and its objectives are among the most ambitious in the developing world. It has
evolved well beyond a focus on free trade in goods to embrace high levels of
cross-national labor and capital mobility and the progressive opening of many
sectors within each economy. Under the customs union agreement and the
adoption of the common market agreement, member countries have eliminated intra-regional
tariffs, unified external tariffs, and eased trade restrictions, which leads to
a notable increase in the value of goods traded among member states.[7]
Due
to trade volume statistics, both Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)
are considered to be the major trading partners in the region, and they highly rely
on their logistics capabilities to scale up their manufacturing activities.
During the last 26 years, Saudi Arabia’s exports to the UAE have increased at
an annualized rate of 12.4%, from $672 million in 1995 to $14 billion in 2021.
On the other hand, the UAE’s exports to Saudi Arabia have increased at an
annualized rate of 17.3%, from $350 million in 1995 to $22.3 billion in 2021.[8]
According to the observatory of economic complexity reports the trade volume
between the UAE and Saudi Arabia has increased by 28% since 2018 reaching
137.51 billion in 2022.[9]
The
GCC countries have always been known for their significant hydrocarbon
industry, but recent evidence shows that diversification efforts across the
region’s countries have paid off. The recent economic slowdown since the
beginning of 2023 due to OPEC+ production cuts has been quite offset by robust
performance among non-oil activities, thanks to long-lasting diversification
efforts backed by leading initiatives and supporting accommodative policies
targeting vital non-oil sectors.[10]
Having
said that, it is worth noting that the logistics services sector was one of the
engines of economic diversification across the countries in the region.
Moreover, several countries have leveraged the sector externalities as enabling
conditions for the development of other sectors.
As
part of the Saudi Vision 2030, the National Industrial Development and
Logistics Program (NIDLP) was launched to facilitate the country’s
transformation into a leading global player in the logistics and industry
sectors. The program aims at leveraging Saudi Arabia’s logistics competitive
advantage to become a global logistics hub before being utilized as a key
enabler for the success of the ‘Made in Saudi’ program to scale up local
content among non-oil sectors while paving the way for Saudi Arabia’s 4th
Industrial Revolution. In 2022, transportation and
storage captured 5.2% of the overall real GDP.[11]
In
the same context, the UAE’s largest operator of fully integrated economic
zones, KEZAD Group, is operating 12 economic zones spreading across the emirate
of Abu Dhabi. Following the creation of world-class logistics services via
advanced transportation infrastructure together with multimodal connectivity by
road, sea, air, and future rail networks, the group has further customized its
logistics offering to target specific industries. Currently, the group is
offering tailored logistics solutions for the automotive industry and
specialized logistics solutions for the food processing industry. In 2022,
transportation and storage captured 4.8% of the overall real GDP.[12]
Improvements
in GCC logistics have facilitated key socio-economic gains, enabling the
region’s logistics hub to become a central node in the worldwide circulation of
commodities. It has increased efficiency through better transportation,
streamlined customs processes, and advanced tracking systems, fostering the
movement of goods across GCC countries and reducing the time, lowering the cost,
and gaining customer satisfaction.
Additionally,
logistics improvements have facilitated the penetration of new markets,
enabling better connectivity between GCC countries and international markets,
allowing new trade routes and large varieties of goods and services. Also, it
has supported attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and expanding
multinational companies’ operations in the GCC countries.
This
makes it clear that trade facilitation tools and cooperation in the logistics sector
within the Gulf region are essential for maintaining regional stability. Not
only these measures strengthen economic and diplomatic ties within the region but
also positions the GCC as a more competitive economic pillar on the global scale,
giving the region a competitive edge from its shared infrastructure investments.
Because it will promote economic synergy, support the growth and development of
the GCC countries and result in cost savings in the transportation and
distribution sectors. In the meantime, it is better coordination of activities in
supply chain and optimization of inventory management and minimizing
disruptions. Additionally, this will support trade product diversification
among them by reducing dependence on specific goods or trading partners.
Assessing GCC logistics progress: The
Logistics Performance Index (LPI)
The
Logistics Performance Index (LPI) is an interactive benchmarking tool created
by the World Bank to help countries identify the challenges and opportunities
they face in their performance in trade logistics and what they can do to
improve their performance. It was first launched in 2007 to assess logistics
performance across 150 countries. The LPI 2023 edition allows for comparisons
across 139 countries, reflecting the resilience of countries logistics
following two global disruptions, namely the COVID-19 pandemic and the
Russian-Ukrainian war.[13]
Hence,
the LPI measures logistics performance across six components and offers a combination
of the weighted average of the country’s scores on customs performance,
infrastructure quality, ease of arranging shipments, logistics service quality,
shipments tracking and tracing, timeliness of shipments as well as practical
data measuring logistics efficiency.
According
to the LPI’s most recent findings (2023 edition), the top 10 rankings have been
captured by high-income economies, with Singapore scoring 4.3 out of 5, while 8
of the top 10 are European countries. The index results showed that the average
time of a container trip across all trade routes from checking in at the source
port to checking out at the destination port would take 44 days, with 60% of
that time spent at sea.
Regionally,
logistics performance across the GCC countries showed very positive signs, with
all six countries recording upgrades in their scores in 2023 compared with
2018, reflecting the region’s logistics hub’s ability to bounce back from crises
and ensure continuity of trade during hard times.
Source: The Logistics
Performance Index 2023, World Bank
In
terms of rankings, most GCC countries improved their global positions, with the
UAE topping the GCC region and the Arab world. The UAE ranked 12th globally,
followed by Bahrain (34th globally and 2nd regionally). Moreover, the UAE
ranked 4th globally on the “Timeliness sub-indicator, which measures the
frequency with which shipments reach consignees within the scheduled or
expected delivery time.
Meanwhile,
it is noteworthy that Bahrain demonstrated the most improving performance
across the GCC, where the country progressed from 59 globally in 2018 to 34
globally in 2023 (jumping 25 positions). The recent remarkable improvement in
Bahrain logistics performance could be justified in light of the recent launch
of the Logistics Services Sector Strategy in November 2021, aiming at
positioning Bahrain as one of the top 20 global destinations for logistics
services by 2030. The step was backed by effective strategic initiatives, which
focus on reviewing laws and regulations, developing infrastructure facilities,
enhancing policies and procedures, providing incentives for investors,
promoting investment opportunities, and strengthening regional and
international engagement.[14]
Source: The Logistics
Performance Index 2023, World Bank
Additionally,
Saudi Arabia has advanced to 38 globally, while its best performance was
achieved on the infrastructure sub-indicator, which assesses the quality of
trade- and transport-related infrastructure, where Saudi Arabia recorded the
30th globally. This progress was due to the structural reforms and qualitative
strategic measures that had a significant impact and radically transformed the
transport and logistics system, in addition to enhancing its operational
efficiency across every sector's performance in accordance with international
indicators and enhancing the country’s position as a global logistics hub.
On
the other hand, a careful assessment of the main limitations and weakness areas
among GCC logistics hubs, reveals a common decline within the customs
sub-indicator, which measures the effectiveness of border management clearance
and customs. In fact, most GCC countries, except for Kuwait, scored lowest in
that sub-indicator, indicating the growing need for further integration of
customs digital solutions, and better compliance transparency through
information on laws, regulations, and administrative guidelines.
Key
success stories for GCC countries in the freight and logistics sector
· In
September 2023, Aramex announced the successful testing of its drone and
roadside deliveries in Dubai. This is part of the company’s Future Delivery
Program, which is aimed at enhancing last-mile logistics using smart shipping
solutions to enable quicker, more sustainable, and cost-effective deliveries.
· In
May 2023, Etihad Rail and DHL entered into a partnership agreement,
establishing a new joint venture. This collaboration will enable DHL to carry
out its operations in the UAE and utilize rail transportation as a key route
for distributing goods within the country.
· In
May 2023, Masstrans Freight LLC opened a new office in JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free
Zone), Dubai, to improve its freight services in the UAE.
· In
2022, Saudi Arabia's logistics industry reached USD 18 billion, making it among
the highest emerging market in the GCC. In 2021, around USD 15 billion was
invested in Saudi Arabia's infrastructure and transportation projects. Saudi
Arabia's ambitious plan involves investing USD 147 billion in transport and
logistics infrastructure over eight years, aiming to make the country a major
global aviation hub, with around 35% funded by the government and the rest from
the private sector. In addition to that, in 2021, the Saudi Arabian government
constructed a new rail infrastructure and invested around SAR 562.66 billion
(USD 149.83 billion) in transport and logistics. Saudi Arabia's ongoing rail
project is the 1,300 km Land Bridge, which will connect the country's ports on
the Red Sea coast to those on the Arabian Gulf. It is expected to cost between
USD 7 billion and USD 26 billion when completed in 2026.
· Qatar's
southern region is set to attract USD 8.17 billion in direct investments for
development, aiming to establish a regional hub for investments and logistics
services.
· The
GCC Freight and Logistics Market size is estimated at 47.59 billion USD in 2023
and is expected to reach 66.61 billion USD by 2029, growing at a 5.76% Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) during the forecast period (2023-2029).
· The
GCC Railway appears to be reviving, which could transform trade and
connectivity across the Gulf. The railway's construction improved regional
connectivity by reducing transportation times and costs between major GCC
cities and ports, improving trade flows, and attracting investments.
EU
exemptions for shipping lines expiration impact
The
European Commission has decided not to extend the EU legal framework, which
exempts liner shipping consortia from EU antitrust rules, since it is no longer
adapted to those new market conditions. Though the EU clarified that it
won’t mean that shipping lines will no longer be able to cooperate, they will
instead have to assess the compatibility of their agreements with the standard
EU antitrust rule.[15]
The
European Commission will no longer promote the Consortia Block Exemption
Regulation (CBER) in the shipping sector and therefore it will let it expire on
25 April 2024. The CBER allows shipping lines, under certain conditions, to
enter into cooperation agreements to provide joint cargo transport services,
also known as ‘consortia’. Additionally, the CBER was not enabling smaller
carriers to cooperate with each other and offer alternative services in
competition with larger carriers.
Recently,
a certain group of shipping companies got used to controlling most of the
market share. As a result of that decision, their profit will be affected after
their earnings have plunged after a period of bumper profits during the COVID-19
pandemic, especially with an increase in online demand over supply. There were
almost nine shipping line companies that were violating the law as they were
controlling most of the world trade value. Meanwhile, the cost of shipment
through these companies reached its peak and their profits jumped, and the
customers faced very hard times with the delay in their imported and exported
products as the ports were very congested.[16]
A
reduction in the number of shipping alliances will lead to higher shipping
costs and reduce efficiency in the short term; however, in the long term, it
could lead to more competition and an efficient shipping industry, providing
diverse, quality, and affordable products or services.
Moreover, competition leads to companies seeking opportunities for a
competitive edge over one another, with the slightest benefit to the individual
customer leading to a far greater market share.[17]
This
could have a positive long-term impact on the trade flow of GCC countries,
which will no longer be controlled by large dominant liner shipping consortia,
leading to changes in shipping dynamics, costs and open
competition among other shipping companies. It might influence shipping routes
pricing strategies and services levels, with potential implications for the efficiency
and cost effectiveness of trade activities involving GCC countries.
Challenges
and recommendations
The
logistics services sector in the GCC countries has gone a very long way toward transforming
the region’s economies into reliable and attractive trade and logistics hubs.
In doing so, most GCC countries have embarked on similar approaches and
measures, not only for sectoral development itself but also for manufacturing
promotion purposes, securing foreign investment flows, and energizing the
entire region’s economic diversification goals.
Measuring
progress shows that generally, the GCC logistics sector did well across many
dimensions, while several countries in the region rank the sector very high
among their national agendas to ensure the superiority of their logistics
offerings regionally and internationally. However, the logistics sector, like
many other sectors, is currently facing multiple challenges and disruptions, as
well as shifting patterns and uncertainty. As a result, there may be potential
challenges and shaky roads ahead for the logistics sector in the GCC because these
companies are less digitized than their counterparts in more developed markets,
and less is being spent on the kinds of infrastructure projects that require significant
freight shipments.[18]
Therefore,
the GCC must capitalize on new digital tools and applications to remain
competitive with global players and must move fast or risk ceding the
first-mover advantage to their competitors. In this respect, it is noteworthy
that recently, governments in the region have made large-scale investments in
digital to promote sustainable economic growth. Saudi Vision 2030, for example,
seeks to increase the private sector’s role in the economy and diversify away
from dependence on oil to improve logistics throughout the country.
The
UAE has an even stronger focus on transportation and logistics (T&L). The
UAE Vision 2021 sets goals for innovation, including making digital technology
one of seven primary national sectors, and it aspires to make the country first
overall in the global rankings of air transport and port infrastructure, and
among the top 10 in terms of logistics. For these broad initiatives, investing
in T&L is a short-term goal and a means of hitting more ambitious economic
targets.
Despite
the significant contribution of SEZs as a key common feature among most GCC
logistics development plans, it is widely perceived that most of these plans
are supply-driven, trying to offer the best incentives from the
regulator/developer point of view, which in many cases fail to realize the
desired goals. According to UNCTAD, only 35% of free zones are fully or
sufficiently utilized, with the rest being somewhat underutilized, while across
the GCC region, a recent pwc report estimated that only about 25% of the
available SEZ land in the GCC is developed and only two SEZs (both in the UAE)
have developed more than 75% of their total reserved area.[19]
Therefore,
SEZs offerings for logistics are highly recommended to consider demand-driven
or customer-pull (Customer-Centric View) measures to ensure effective
utilization of their offerings. For example, a reduced utility tariff would
benefit a typical manufacturer much more than a logistics player.
Additionally,
with several GCC logistics development strategies highly embarking on the
sector as a potential job creation anchor, many evidences show that automation
and rising technology adoption are reshaping the logistics workforce, allowing
the sector players to offer better services with lower costs (fewer workers).
Indeed, many labor-intensive logistics operations are gradually being
completely automated or are on their way to being so, which will adversely
affect the workforce.
Automation
has nearly disrupted every aspect of the logistics processes, while the
increasing use of big data, along with acceleration innovation and
logistics-related technology, has penetrated last-mile delivery via the growing
use of autonomous vehicles or delivery drones.
In
this regard, it is recommended to carefully assess the logistics future, as
trends reveal that regulatory and demand pressures toward environmental
sustainability are on the rise. Green logistics extends to include as many
forms as possible, ranging from between using sustainable fuels, shorter
routes, minimizing waste, sustainable transportation modes, energy-efficient
operations, sustainable procurement, and parenting with green solutions
companies. Recent World Bank survey findings indicate a rising occurrence of
such forms and applications among shippers and logistics operations, where
almost 75% of shippers had asked for such options “often” or “nearly always”
when exporting to top-performing logistics countries.
This
trend is in line with growing commitments across the GCC region to achieve net zero
emissions by 2050 (mainly from the UAE and KSA) via reducing logistics-related
greenhouse gas emissions and other harmful emissions. This will provide the
region’s logistics operations with improved conditions for navigating logistics
in the future, as well as long-term profitability, competitive advantage, improved
partnerships and customer satisfaction.
To
highlight the points made above, let me briefly outline some crucial strategies
to help the Gulf region’s logistics industry operate more effectively, promote
economic growth, stimulate its economy and boost the volume of regional trade:
· Harmonizing
and streamlining the logistic sectors’ regulations and procedures among Gulf
countries in a way that facilitates the supply chain process and supports a
business-friendly environment for logistic companies; and implementing effective
and transparent customs procedures to cut down on delays and bureaucratic
procedures for import and export activities.
· Redesign
traditional business models and processes through digital methods. Companies
across all industries now collect real-time performance information and use
advanced analytics and business intelligence to make smarter decisions. This
could reduce operational costs by 10 to 30 percent through efficiency gains
while minimizing operational risks and reducing asset breakdowns by up to 75
percent.
· Increase
customer satisfaction and loyalty by considering all freight carriers into a
single database, which is provided for free to companies looking to better
organize and track their shipments. Enterprise clients can use this database to
plan future shipments and set up automatic reorder cycles, which helps them
keep less inventory on hand. Along with running algorithms, and digitizing a
large portion of the paperwork process, it is modeled after the U.S.-based freight
forwarder “Fleport”.
· The
adoption of a digizzzctal web-based marketplace for international freight
shipping, developed by a company named “Freightos,” which gathers quotes for
services from thousands of freight forwarders. This new business model allows
shipping customers to see what is available in terms of price, service levels,
and transit times, and then make an instant booking through the website.[20]
· Foster
collaborations between public and private sectors to encourage innovation.
· Development
of risk mitigation strategies to address disruptions in the supply chain and
embrace modern technologies to optimize supply chain process.
· Integration of sustainable practices to minimize environmental impact and promote eco-friendly practices.
[1] Logistics services critical for trade and economic development — DDG Gonzalez,” World Trade Organization, October 15, 2021, https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news21_e/ddgag_18oct21_e.htm.
[2] Christina Wiederer, “Boosting
trade and economic development through better logistics,” World Bank blogs,
April 21, 2023,
https://blogs.worldbank.org/trade/boosting-trade-and-economic-development-through-better-logistics.
[3]
McKinsey & Company, “Logistics
Disruptors,” https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/travel-logistics-and-infrastructure/our-insights/logistics-disruptors.
[4] “11 Major Innovations in the
Logistics Industry,” iThink Logistics, https://www.ithinklogistics.com/blog/11-major-innovations-done-to-transform-the-logistics-industry/.
[5] Raphael A. Espinoza, Ghada Fayad, Ananthakrishnan
Prasad, The Macroeconomics of the Arab States of the Gulf, IMF eLibrary,
November 21, 2013, https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/book/9780199683796/9780199683796.xml.
[6] Amr Goussous et al., “Re-birth of Special Economic
Zones in the GCC: Capturing the full potential of Special Economic Zones,” pwc, 2020, https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/publications/documents/re-birth-of-special-economic-zones-gcc.pdf.
[7] “Economic integration in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC),” The
World Bank Group, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/621311468276383272/Economic-integration-in-the-Gulf-Cooperation-Council-GCC.
[8] “Historical Data,” OEC, https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/sau/partner/are.
[9] “UAE-Saudi trade
hits $160bn in 5 years,” Arabian Business, September 22, 2023, https://www.arabianbusiness.com/abnews/uae-saudi-trade-hits-160bn-in-5-years.
[10] “Economic Diversification Efforts Paying Off in GCC Region but More
Reforms Needed,” The World Bank, November 22, 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/11/22/economic-diversification-efforts-paying-off-in-gcc-region-but-more-reforms-needed.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Khalifa Economic Zones Abu Dhabi (KEZAD Group),” https://www.kezadgroup.com/about-us/kezad-group-overview/#.
[13] “The Logistics Performance Index and its Indicators,” The
World Bank, 2023,
https://lpi.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/LPI_2023_report_with_layout.pdf.
[14] Bahrain Economic Development Board, “Transportation
and Logistics Business Opportunities,” https://www.bahrainedb.com/business-opportunities/logistics.
[15] “EU scraps competition law exemptions for shipping lines,” Financial
Times,
October 10, 2023, https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news21_e/ddgag_18oct21_e.htm.
[16] “Liner Shipping Consortia to Lose
EU Antitrust Block Exemption From 2024,” Shipping Telegraph, October 10,
2023,
[17] “Logistic industry in GCC- statistics &
facts,” statista, May 30, 2023,
https://www.statista.com/topics/7399/logistics-industry-in-the-gulf-cooperation-council/.
[18] “Putting GCC transportation and logistics in the
driver’s seat,” strategy&, https://www.strategyand.pwc.com/m1/en/reports/putting-gcc-transportation-and-logistics-in-the-drivers-seat.pdf.
[19] “World Investment Report 2019:
Special Economic Zones,” UNCTAD, 2019, https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/wir2019_en.pdf.
[20] “Putting GCC transportation and logistics in the
driver’s seat,” op. cit.
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